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learned about the new ideas in gearbox bearings
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Gearboxes have long taken blame as the typical cause for a failure, and for good reason. Many gearboxes fail to pass the five-year mark without need for component repairs or full replacement. But when the industry first got its start, few considered the high winds, vibration, or environmental conditions that turbines must withstand.
“At the time, the same basic gearboxes used at cement mills or in industrial applications were simply hauled up some 300 feet in the air, place inside a nacelle, and expected to work to the same standards,”
Nowdays gearbox is specifically designed for its intended application, such as for use in a wind turbine. However, the “gearbox legacy design issue,” as calls it, has led to years of lessons learned for the Bearings industry that continue to this day. “For example, Nowdays a gearbox designed for a brand-new turbine today is exceptionally better than one even made five or seven years ago because of the accumulative knowledge engineers have gained and continue to gain over time.”
Although this progress has led to more durable gearboxes capable of better handling the harsh conditions turbines face, there is still one fundamental challenge. This challenge primarily relates to differences in speed, according to bearings industry. “A turbine’s rotor may be turning at about 15 rpm but the generators are going 1,500 rpm, which represents an increase of 80 to 100 times,”
Typically, a designer would select different types of bearings and lubricants for low and high-speed applications. “But here you have one gearbox handling different speeds and loads with one type of lubricant. This isn’t the best scenario.” the turbine design would make use of two different gearboxes — one for low and one for high speeds — but that’s too complicated and not economical or feasible for the industry.
“Nevertheless, you’re still stuck with a machine that must deal with compound speeds in a harsh and complex environment, while facing high dynamic loads. Over time that leads to failures.” the industry is likely never going to fully overcome this challenge in gearbox-driven turbines, but quality bearings properly maintained are one step in mitigating turbine downtime.
High-speed bearings
Although there is some truth to the statement that a gearbox is only as good as its components, even the highest quality equipment has a limited life expectancy in the industry. Bearings offer no exception.
Bearings serve numerous roles in a wind-turbine gearbox and show different failure rates based on their position. For example, planet carriers and low-speed bearings work with some thrust load but generally have a low failure rate.
Planetary bearings
While high-speed bearings have the highest failure rates and low-speed bearings have some of the lowest, planetary bearings rank somewhere in between. Life expectancy is about 10 years before failures typically set in, although this can vary depending on the make and model of the gearbox.
“But regardless of gearbox model or bearing type, we generally find that deflections and loading problems are the primary issues with planet bearings”, “This is because of the variable loads that come into the gearbox and cause undesired deflections. This is made worse when the main bearing wears and lets even more thrust and load than intended into the gearbox. Over time, these forces take a toll.”
Integrated bearings
A bearing typically has three pieces: the rollers, an inner race that is pressed onto a shaft, and an outer race that is pressed into the gear bore. But now there are options that integrate the inner race with the shaft or the outer race with the gear, or both, into one solid component. “Integrating essentially machines the bearing’s outer race into the inner bore of the gear,”
An integrated bearing reduces the total number of components in the assembly by directly machining bearing races into the surrounding components of a gearbox. It is an option for cylindrical and tapered gearbox planet bearings.
“In some ways it brings complexity into the manufacturing process because bearings are not made at gear plants nor are gears made at bearing plants,” says Brooks. “But there are a lot of advantages to integrating the two.” Most notably: integrated bearings show improved performance and greater power density.
“At the time, the same basic gearboxes used at cement mills or in industrial applications were simply hauled up some 300 feet in the air, place inside a nacelle, and expected to work to the same standards,”
Nowdays gearbox is specifically designed for its intended application, such as for use in a wind turbine. However, the “gearbox legacy design issue,” as calls it, has led to years of lessons learned for the Bearings industry that continue to this day. “For example, Nowdays a gearbox designed for a brand-new turbine today is exceptionally better than one even made five or seven years ago because of the accumulative knowledge engineers have gained and continue to gain over time.”
Although this progress has led to more durable gearboxes capable of better handling the harsh conditions turbines face, there is still one fundamental challenge. This challenge primarily relates to differences in speed, according to bearings industry. “A turbine’s rotor may be turning at about 15 rpm but the generators are going 1,500 rpm, which represents an increase of 80 to 100 times,”
Typically, a designer would select different types of bearings and lubricants for low and high-speed applications. “But here you have one gearbox handling different speeds and loads with one type of lubricant. This isn’t the best scenario.” the turbine design would make use of two different gearboxes — one for low and one for high speeds — but that’s too complicated and not economical or feasible for the industry.
“Nevertheless, you’re still stuck with a machine that must deal with compound speeds in a harsh and complex environment, while facing high dynamic loads. Over time that leads to failures.” the industry is likely never going to fully overcome this challenge in gearbox-driven turbines, but quality bearings properly maintained are one step in mitigating turbine downtime.
High-speed bearings
Although there is some truth to the statement that a gearbox is only as good as its components, even the highest quality equipment has a limited life expectancy in the industry. Bearings offer no exception.
Bearings serve numerous roles in a wind-turbine gearbox and show different failure rates based on their position. For example, planet carriers and low-speed bearings work with some thrust load but generally have a low failure rate.
Planetary bearings
While high-speed bearings have the highest failure rates and low-speed bearings have some of the lowest, planetary bearings rank somewhere in between. Life expectancy is about 10 years before failures typically set in, although this can vary depending on the make and model of the gearbox.
“But regardless of gearbox model or bearing type, we generally find that deflections and loading problems are the primary issues with planet bearings”, “This is because of the variable loads that come into the gearbox and cause undesired deflections. This is made worse when the main bearing wears and lets even more thrust and load than intended into the gearbox. Over time, these forces take a toll.”
Integrated bearings
A bearing typically has three pieces: the rollers, an inner race that is pressed onto a shaft, and an outer race that is pressed into the gear bore. But now there are options that integrate the inner race with the shaft or the outer race with the gear, or both, into one solid component. “Integrating essentially machines the bearing’s outer race into the inner bore of the gear,”
An integrated bearing reduces the total number of components in the assembly by directly machining bearing races into the surrounding components of a gearbox. It is an option for cylindrical and tapered gearbox planet bearings.
“In some ways it brings complexity into the manufacturing process because bearings are not made at gear plants nor are gears made at bearing plants,” says Brooks. “But there are a lot of advantages to integrating the two.” Most notably: integrated bearings show improved performance and greater power density.
The history of printing Machine
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Printing, or the process of reproducing text and images, has a long history behind it. This page describes the evolution of print. It acts as a summary of a more elaborate description which starts here. You can also click on the title of each century to get more in-depth information.
3000 BC and earlier
The Mesopotamians use round cylinder seals for rolling an impress of images onto clay tablets. In other early societies in China and Egypt, small stamps are used to print on cloth.
Second century AD
A Chinese man named Ts’ai Lun is credited with inventing paper.
Seventh century
A small book containing the text of the Gospel of John in Latin is added to the grave of Saint Cuthbert. In 1104 it is recovered from his coffin in Durham Cathedral, Britain. The Cuthbert Gospel is currently the oldest European book still in existence.
Eleventh century
A Chinese man named Pi-Sheng develops type characters from hardened clay, creating the first movable type. The fairly soft material hampers the success of this technology.
Twelfth century
Papermaking reaches Europe.
Thirteenth century
Type characters cast from metal (bronze) are developed in Japan and China. The oldest known text printed from this type of metal type dates to the year 1397 AD.
Fifteenth century
Even though woodcut had already been in use for centuries in China and Japan, the oldest known European specimen dates from the beginning of the 15th century. Woodcut is a relief printing technique in which text and images are carved into the surface of a block of wood. The printing parts remain level with the surface while the non-printing parts are removed, typically with a knife or chisel. The wood block is then inked and the substrate pressed against the wood block. The ink that is used is made of lampblack (soot from oil lamps) mixed with varnish or boiled linseed oil.
Books are still rare since they need to be laboriously handwritten by scribes. The University of Cambridge has one of the largest libraries in Europe – constituting of just 122 books.
In 1436 Gutenberg begins work on a printing press. It takes him 4 years to finish his wooden press which uses movable metal type. Among his first publications that get printed on the new device are bibles. The first edition has 40 lines per page. A later 42-line version comes in two volumes.
In 1465 the first drypoint engravings are created by the Housebook Master, a south German artist. Drypoint is a technique in which an image is incised into a (copper) plate with a hard-pointed ‘needle’ of sharp metal or a diamond point.
In their print shop in Venice John and Wendelin of Speier are probably the first printers to use pure roman type, which no longer looks like the handwritten characters that other printers have been trying to imitate until then.
In 1476 William Caxton buys equipment from the Netherlands and establishes the first printing press in England at Westminster. The painting below depicts Caxton showing his printing press to King Edward IV.
That same year copper engravings are for the first time used for illustrations. With engravings, a drawing is made on a copper plate by cutting grooves into it.
By the end of the century, printing has become established in more than 250 cities around Europe. One of the main challenges of the industry is distribution, which leads to the establishment of numerous book fairs. The most important one is the Frankfurt Book Fair.
Sixteenth century
Aldus Manutius is the first printer to come up with smaller, more portable books. He is also the first to use Italic type, designed by Venetian punchcutter Francesco Griffo.
In 1507 Lucas Cranach invents the chiaroscuro woodcut, a technique in which drawings are reproduced using two or more blocks printed in different colors. The Italian Ugo da Carpi is one of the printers to use such woodcuts, for example in Diogenes, the work shown below.
In 1525 the famous painter, wood carver and copper engraver Albrecht Dürer publishes ‘Unterweysung der Messung’ (A Course on the Art of Measurement), a book on the geometry of letters.
The ‘Historia Veneta’ (1551) is one of the many books of Pietro Bembo, a Venetian scholar and cardinal who is most famous for his work on the Italian language and poetry. The Bembo typeface is named after him.
Christophe Plantin is one of the most famous printers of this century. In his print shop in Antwerp, he produces fine work ornamented with engravings after Rubens and other artists. Many of his works as well as some of the equipment from the shop can be admired in the Plantin-Moretus museum.
Seventeenth century
Plantin is also the first to print a facsimile. A facsimile is a reproduction of an old book, manuscript, map, art print or other item that is as true to the original source as possible.
The word ‘not’ is accidentally left out of Exodus 20:14 in a 1631 reprint of the King James Bible. The Archbishop of Canterbury and King Charles I are not amused when they learn that God commanded Moses “Thou shalt commit adultery”. The printers, Robert Barker and Martin Lucas, are fined and have their printing license revoked. This version of the Bible is referred to as The Wicked Bible and also called the Adulterous Bible or Sinner’s Bible.
In Paris, the Imprimerie Royale du Louvre is established in 1640 at the instigation of Richelieu. The first book that is published is ‘De Imitatione Christi’ (The Imitation of Christ), a widely read Catholic Christian spiritual book that was first published in Latin around 1418.
In 1642 Ludwig von Siegen invents mezzotint, a technique to reproduce halftones by roughening a copper plate with thousands of little dots made by a metal tool with small teeth, called a ‘rocker’. The tiny pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean.
The first American paper mill is established in 1690.
Eighteenth century
In 1710 the German painter and engraver Jakob Christof Le Blon produces the first engraving in several colors. He uses the mezzotint method to engrave three metal plates. Each plate is inked with a different color, using red, yellow and blue. Later on, he adds a fourth plate, bearing black lines. This technique helped form the foundation for modern color printing. Le Bon’s work is based on Newton’s theory, published in 1702, which states that all colors in the spectrum are composed of the three primary colors blue, yellow and red.
William Caslon is an English typographer whose foundry operates in London for over 200 years. His Caslon Roman Old Face is cut between 1716 and 1728. The letters are modeled on Dutch types but they are more delicate and not as monotonous. Caslon’s typefaces remain popular, digital versions are still available today.
Nineteenth century
In 1800 Charles Stanhope, the third Earl Stanhope, builds the first press which has an iron frame instead of a wooden one. This Stanhope press is faster, more durable and it can print larger sheets. A few years later another performance improvement is achieved by Friedrich Gottlob Koenig and Andreas Friedrich Bauer who build their first cylinder press. Their company is still in existence today and is known as KBA.
Twentieth century
In 1903 American printer Ira Washington Rubel is instrumental in producing the first lithographic offset press for paper.
Three years later ‘Le Petit Larousse Illustré’, a single-volume encyclopedia, is published for the first time.
In 1907 the Englishman Samuel Simon is awarded a patent for the process of using silk fabric as a printing screen. Screen printing quickly becomes popular for producing expensive wallpaper and printing on fabrics such as linen and silk. Screen printing had first appeared in China during the Shang Dynasty (960–1279 AD).
A few of the new press manufacturers that appear on the market are Roland (nowadays known as Man Roland) in 1911 and Komori Machine Works in 1923.
3000 BC and earlier
The Mesopotamians use round cylinder seals for rolling an impress of images onto clay tablets. In other early societies in China and Egypt, small stamps are used to print on cloth.
Second century AD
A Chinese man named Ts’ai Lun is credited with inventing paper.
Seventh century
A small book containing the text of the Gospel of John in Latin is added to the grave of Saint Cuthbert. In 1104 it is recovered from his coffin in Durham Cathedral, Britain. The Cuthbert Gospel is currently the oldest European book still in existence.
Eleventh century
A Chinese man named Pi-Sheng develops type characters from hardened clay, creating the first movable type. The fairly soft material hampers the success of this technology.
Twelfth century
Papermaking reaches Europe.
Thirteenth century
Type characters cast from metal (bronze) are developed in Japan and China. The oldest known text printed from this type of metal type dates to the year 1397 AD.
Fifteenth century
Even though woodcut had already been in use for centuries in China and Japan, the oldest known European specimen dates from the beginning of the 15th century. Woodcut is a relief printing technique in which text and images are carved into the surface of a block of wood. The printing parts remain level with the surface while the non-printing parts are removed, typically with a knife or chisel. The wood block is then inked and the substrate pressed against the wood block. The ink that is used is made of lampblack (soot from oil lamps) mixed with varnish or boiled linseed oil.
Books are still rare since they need to be laboriously handwritten by scribes. The University of Cambridge has one of the largest libraries in Europe – constituting of just 122 books.
In 1436 Gutenberg begins work on a printing press. It takes him 4 years to finish his wooden press which uses movable metal type. Among his first publications that get printed on the new device are bibles. The first edition has 40 lines per page. A later 42-line version comes in two volumes.
In 1465 the first drypoint engravings are created by the Housebook Master, a south German artist. Drypoint is a technique in which an image is incised into a (copper) plate with a hard-pointed ‘needle’ of sharp metal or a diamond point.
In their print shop in Venice John and Wendelin of Speier are probably the first printers to use pure roman type, which no longer looks like the handwritten characters that other printers have been trying to imitate until then.
In 1476 William Caxton buys equipment from the Netherlands and establishes the first printing press in England at Westminster. The painting below depicts Caxton showing his printing press to King Edward IV.
That same year copper engravings are for the first time used for illustrations. With engravings, a drawing is made on a copper plate by cutting grooves into it.
By the end of the century, printing has become established in more than 250 cities around Europe. One of the main challenges of the industry is distribution, which leads to the establishment of numerous book fairs. The most important one is the Frankfurt Book Fair.
Sixteenth century
Aldus Manutius is the first printer to come up with smaller, more portable books. He is also the first to use Italic type, designed by Venetian punchcutter Francesco Griffo.
In 1507 Lucas Cranach invents the chiaroscuro woodcut, a technique in which drawings are reproduced using two or more blocks printed in different colors. The Italian Ugo da Carpi is one of the printers to use such woodcuts, for example in Diogenes, the work shown below.
In 1525 the famous painter, wood carver and copper engraver Albrecht Dürer publishes ‘Unterweysung der Messung’ (A Course on the Art of Measurement), a book on the geometry of letters.
The ‘Historia Veneta’ (1551) is one of the many books of Pietro Bembo, a Venetian scholar and cardinal who is most famous for his work on the Italian language and poetry. The Bembo typeface is named after him.
Christophe Plantin is one of the most famous printers of this century. In his print shop in Antwerp, he produces fine work ornamented with engravings after Rubens and other artists. Many of his works as well as some of the equipment from the shop can be admired in the Plantin-Moretus museum.
Seventeenth century
Plantin is also the first to print a facsimile. A facsimile is a reproduction of an old book, manuscript, map, art print or other item that is as true to the original source as possible.
The word ‘not’ is accidentally left out of Exodus 20:14 in a 1631 reprint of the King James Bible. The Archbishop of Canterbury and King Charles I are not amused when they learn that God commanded Moses “Thou shalt commit adultery”. The printers, Robert Barker and Martin Lucas, are fined and have their printing license revoked. This version of the Bible is referred to as The Wicked Bible and also called the Adulterous Bible or Sinner’s Bible.
In Paris, the Imprimerie Royale du Louvre is established in 1640 at the instigation of Richelieu. The first book that is published is ‘De Imitatione Christi’ (The Imitation of Christ), a widely read Catholic Christian spiritual book that was first published in Latin around 1418.
In 1642 Ludwig von Siegen invents mezzotint, a technique to reproduce halftones by roughening a copper plate with thousands of little dots made by a metal tool with small teeth, called a ‘rocker’. The tiny pits in the plate hold the ink when the face of the plate is wiped clean.
The first American paper mill is established in 1690.
Eighteenth century
In 1710 the German painter and engraver Jakob Christof Le Blon produces the first engraving in several colors. He uses the mezzotint method to engrave three metal plates. Each plate is inked with a different color, using red, yellow and blue. Later on, he adds a fourth plate, bearing black lines. This technique helped form the foundation for modern color printing. Le Bon’s work is based on Newton’s theory, published in 1702, which states that all colors in the spectrum are composed of the three primary colors blue, yellow and red.
William Caslon is an English typographer whose foundry operates in London for over 200 years. His Caslon Roman Old Face is cut between 1716 and 1728. The letters are modeled on Dutch types but they are more delicate and not as monotonous. Caslon’s typefaces remain popular, digital versions are still available today.
Nineteenth century
In 1800 Charles Stanhope, the third Earl Stanhope, builds the first press which has an iron frame instead of a wooden one. This Stanhope press is faster, more durable and it can print larger sheets. A few years later another performance improvement is achieved by Friedrich Gottlob Koenig and Andreas Friedrich Bauer who build their first cylinder press. Their company is still in existence today and is known as KBA.
Twentieth century
In 1903 American printer Ira Washington Rubel is instrumental in producing the first lithographic offset press for paper.
Three years later ‘Le Petit Larousse Illustré’, a single-volume encyclopedia, is published for the first time.
In 1907 the Englishman Samuel Simon is awarded a patent for the process of using silk fabric as a printing screen. Screen printing quickly becomes popular for producing expensive wallpaper and printing on fabrics such as linen and silk. Screen printing had first appeared in China during the Shang Dynasty (960–1279 AD).
A few of the new press manufacturers that appear on the market are Roland (nowadays known as Man Roland) in 1911 and Komori Machine Works in 1923.
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